译事的一大困难就是必须学会如何从源语文本中提取概念意义, 并在此基础上重构译文, 而不是基于源语文本的词语或结构重塑译文。而其概念意义的提取却是以词典的词条意义为基础, 因而词典也就成了译者寻找词义最重要的来源。事实上, 没有哪本词典能包罗词义的所有必要信息和语际间的对应关系, 因此译者在查词义时不一定都能手到索来, 有时有必要使用多种不同类型的词典, 以确保对概念意义的正确提取。诚如奈达(N ida, 1996: 85) 指出,“许多词典都是不充分的, 且基于十分错误的意义特性理论, 尤其是双语词典常更令人不能满意, 因为双语词典通常只提供了一连串注释而没有任何定义”。比如, 在“A s one TV campaign putback then, the p roper p rice fo r an engagement ring w asth ree2month s’ salary. ”(T im L arge: L overs Sw ap E ng ag em ent R ing s f orW atches) 一句中,“put back”的词义就需揣摩一番。从《英汉大词典》上查得其词义为“拨回”和“推迟”, 这显然不通。而据单语词典, put 有assign a figure to 和est imate 之意。按常规逻辑, 通常人们的计算方式是几个月的工资可以购买何物, 而上句中的计算方式却反其道而行之, 即:
然而必须指出, 虽说从事英语翻译的人离不开词典, 但翻译并非是搬字过纸的机械工作, 搞翻译不能完全依赖词典。英国翻译理论家乔治·斯坦纳曾指出:“语法、词典之类的参考书对译者来说都没有多大用处。只有上下文, 包括最广泛的语言文化背景, 才能说明含义。”(转引自杜承南、文军, 1994:217) 英国文豪Samuel Johnson 的一句名言更是恰如其分地道出了词典的作用:“D ict ionaries are like w atches, thewo rst is bet ter than none and the best can no t be expectedto be t rue. ”而翻译初涉者往往天真地夸大词典的作用, 把词典提供的词语定义和语际间所谓“对应语”奉为放之四海而皆“信”的标准, 其极端做法往往是“对号入座”, 致使译文诘屈聱牙, 译痕累累。可以说, 译者查阅词典时的词义分析意识将会大大提高翻译能力。
德国学者J. T rier 提出了语言词汇结构的语义场( semant ic field) 理论。该理论核心是探讨词表达的类概念与词表达的种概念之间的关系。(陆国强, 1983: 115) 要建立两种语言之间的对应, 把词置于语义场中进行考察具有十分重要意义。据笔者观察, 翻译学习者一方面对词典十分敬畏, 但另一方面却没有赋予词典应有的地位。标准的词典包含了根据词典编纂学传统收集的知识体系, 它们对词语的释义或定义通常对使用者来说具有权威性的参考价值。此外, 从某种意义上说, 词典里对一般事物的释义或定义是对客观现实的感知, 反映了词典编者是如何认识世界以及如何对其进行分门别类的。事实上, 词典的每条释义或定义都可视作微观知识的表征, 因为释义或定义结构表明了词典编纂者是如何根据感知到的数据对事物进行分类的。请看以下两个词条定义:
How l: to laugh very loudly and unrest rainedly. (L ong m an M od ern E ng lish D ictionary )
Chuck le: to laugh quiet ly o r inw ardly. (T he new Oxf ordD ictionary of E ng lish)
从上面两例可以看出, how l 和chuck le 共同享有其核心意义(cent ralmeaning)“to p roduce a sound exp ressing happ iness”和核心分类词(classifier)“laugh”, 这一事实可把它们归于声音动词这一语义场的微分类项中。两个定义中“laugh”的状语修饰语不但区分了具有同样核心词义的其他动词, 同时还界定了它们之间互为区分的特征。为此, 这两条定义可划分为如表1 所示的语义成份。
表1 “how l”和“chuck le”的语义成份M eaningcomponenthow l chuck leClassifier ( indicating field membersh ip)
laugh ( to p roduce asound exp ressinghapp iness)
laugh ( to p roduce a soundexp ressinghapp iness)
M anner1 very loudly quiet lyInst rument vo ice vo iceM anner2 unrest rainedly inw ardlyP ragmat ic info rmat ion (wo rld know ledge)
how l: to ut ter o r em it a long, mournful, p laint ivesound; to cry o r w ail loudly, as in pain, so rrow , o r anger;to laugh heart ily; to go on a sp ree (A m erican H eritag e)how l: make a how ling sound; w eep and cry out loudly(T he N ew Oxf ord D ictionary of E ng lish)how l: to make a p ro longed, ho llow , w ailing call (ofwo lves, dogs etc) ; to make sim ilar sound (of h igh w indsetc ) ; to make sim ilar sound (of a person) ; to laugh veryloudly and unrest rainedly; to ut ter w ith a how l (L ongm anM od ern E ng lish D ictionary )how l: to ut ter the long, loud, w ailing cry of wo lves,dogs etc; to ut ter a sim ilar cry of pain, anger, grief etc; tomake a sound like th is; to shout o r laugh in sco rn, m irthetc (W ebster’s N ew W orld D ictionary of the A m erican L ang uag e)
根据上面的词典定义, how l 实际上不是一个词素, 而是三个词素, 译者可得出如表2 所示的语义成份。
表2 “how l”的语义成份how l1 how l2 how l3Classifier speak cry laughM anner1 loudly loudly loudlyInst rument vo ice vo ice vo iceM anner mournfully andp laint ivelyas in pain, so rrow , o r angerunrest rainedlyP ragmat icinfo rmat ion( indicat ive ofspeaker’s st rongemo t ion)of persons,animals o rw inds etc(negat ivelyevaluated bythe perceiver)
表2 的语义成份可使译者构建新的定义:
how l1: to speak loudly, mournfully and p laint ivelyhow l2: to laugh loudly and unrest rainedlyhow l3: to cry loudly as in pain, so rrow , o r anger (ofpersons, animals o r w inds etc)
这里的语义成份是原词典定义中的一些自然词语, 因此与成份分析有所不同。(N ida, 1975) 然而, 就翻译而言, 由于译者必须首先考虑较高层次上的语篇对应关系以及词语必须放在语境中加以考察, 因此成份分析在某种程度上受到了限制。尽管如此, 对词的等级的详尽阐述仍然是一项十分有效的练习, 因为它可以更好地帮助学习者获得查词典的技能和意识, 能更确切地让其明白如何解决像how l 这样的词汇的一词多义现象。有了对how l 一词的定义分析, 可对下一组词汇(即人的声音动词) 中的每一个动词的定义进行同样的阐述, 并由此确定它与其他词素的关系。该组词汇有: shout、w hoop、cry、yell、scream、sh riek、how l、baw l、screech、bellow、w h ine、yow l、squall、w h imper、pule、moan、groan、w ail、w eep、blubber、sob、laugh、mock、ridicule、chuck le、cho rt le、simper、sm irk、giggle、grin。表3 为翻译学习者在下列各语义范畴内,
根据定义结构, 并按词义等级对上述所列的动词重新安排所做的练习。
表3 构建“how l”所属语义场内各级词素的定义结构模式及语义空间S o u n d sP ro d u c ed b yH um an sT om ak e a lo u d so u n d b y sp e ak in gshout: to speak loudlyyell: to shout loudly (because of excitement, anger, pain)w hoop: to shout loudly (because of excitement, happ iness)
cry: to shout (because of excitement, surp rise, fear)
scream: to cry out loudly in a h igh2p itched tone (because of great excitement, anger, pain, fear)
sh riek: to scream very sharp ly and loudlyscreech: to sh riek disagreeably and cont inuouslyhow l1: to shou t in a long , m ou rnf u l, and p laintive voicebaw l: to shout loudly and harsh lybellow: to shout in a loud deep vo iceT om ak e an u n p le a san tso u n d?ex pre s s in g u n h ap p in e s s?
w h ine: to make a long, h igh2p itched sound (because of unhapp iness)
w h imper: to make sho rt, h igh2p itched sounds (because of unhapp iness)
pule: to cry feebly; to w h impermoan: to make a long, low 2p itched sound (because of pain, grief, suffering)
groan: to make a long, low 2p itched, rather loud moan (because of pain, wo rry, disapp roval)
cry1: to make a loud sound (because of unhapp iness, fear, pain)
wail: to make long, loud, h igh2p itched cries (because of so rrow , pain)
how l: to cry loud ly as in p ain, sorrow , or ang er (of p ersons, anim als or th ing s)
yow l: to how l loudlysquall: to cry loudly (because of pain, fear)
cry: to make a sound w hen you p roduce tears exp ressing st rong emo t ionsw eep: to cry very soft lysob: to cry1, breath ing in sho rt breath sblubber: to cry very no isily in an unp leasant, ch ildish w ayT o p ro d u c e lau g hte r?ex pre s s in g h ap p in e s s?
laugh: to make sounds and movements of the face and body show ing exp ressions of amusement, contemp t o r derision etcchuck le: to laugh quiet ly o r inw ardlycho rt le: to give a loud chuck le of gleehow l3: to laug h loud ly and unrestrained lygrin: to sm ile broadly and unrest rainedlygiggle: to laugh ligh t ly in a nervous, affected, o r silly mannersm irk: to sm ile irritat ingly in a conceited, o r silly w aysimper: to sm ile foo lish ly and self2consciouslyguffaw: to laugh in a loud and bo isterous mannerridicule: to laugh at in a contemp tuous mannermock: to laugh at in a sco rnful o r contemp tuous manner从表3 可以看出, how l 分属三个不同的语义范畴, 和三组不同的词素相关。这些意义的分级构成了语义空间每一范畴的基本结构模式。这样的分析能促使翻译学习者成为敏锐的词典使用者。他们发现, 尽管有些词汇, 如: how l 属于多项语义范畴, 但这些意义是相互联系的, how l 的所有意义在“loudness”这一成份上是一致的, 因此在寻求对应时必须加以考虑。很显然, 词典的编纂者在阐释最初的双语词典的词条时只选择把how l 定义为一种“嚎叫, 哀嚎”, 这样的分析使学习者获得了不同语言在同一语义空间内是如何划分的这样一种图表概念。
表4 “how l3”所属的“laugh”次分类英汉语际对应L augh 笑M ake a p leasant sound 令人愉快的笑声chuck le: to laugh quiet ly o r inw ardly 抿着嘴笑cho rt le: to give a loud chuck le of glee 欢笑, 哈哈大笑M ake an unp leasant sound令人不愉快的笑声how l3: to laugh loudly and unrest rainedly.
放声大笑, 狂笑grin: to sm ile broadly and unrest rainedly 露齿而笑giggle: to laugh ligh t ly in a nervous, affected, o r silly manner咯咯地笑, 傻笑sm irk: to sm ile irritat ingly in a conceited, o r silly w ay假笑simper: to sm ile foo lish ly and self2consciously痴笑, 傻笑, 冷笑horse laug h (no corresp ond ing verb) 纵声大笑guffaw: to laugh in a loud and bo isterousmanner.
狂笑ridicule: to laugh at in a contemp tuousmannermock: to laugh at in a sco rnful o r嘲笑contemp tuousmannerg rim sm ile (no corresp ond ing verb) 狞笑通过表4“laugh”与“笑”的次分类对比, 不难看出: 一种语言可以有多个词(如:“痴笑”、“傻笑”、“冷笑”) 与另一语言的某一个词(如: simper) 对应; 语际间并非都是逐字的对应关系(如:“狂笑”与how l、guffaw ) ; 一种语言并不一定存在与另一语言相对应的词, 即词语缺项现象(如:“狞笑”在英语中是个缺项) ; 以及语言都有一字多义现象(如; how l 同属三个不同语义范畴) 等等。
英国著名语言学家J. R. F irth 说过: Each wo rd w henused in a new context is a new wo rd. 其意思是说, 一个词的词义随其所在上下文而变化, 同一个词用在不同的地方会有不同的意思。词汇的多义性导致了其语义的漂浮不定。因此,